Music Therapy for Children With Learning Disabilities

Music Therapy for Children With Learning Disabilities Music therapy: A psychotherapy for the well being of children with learning disabilities Zahra Sultan Somani Music is an inbuilt piece of every culture. The impact of music in children’s lives may be demonstrated through children’s literature in different languages, through lullabies and traditional plays (Dastgheib et al. , 2013). In my opinion, music therapy plays a pivotal role in shaping different domains of the personality. â€Å"Music therapy is the prescribed use of music by a board-certified person to effect positive changes in the psychological, physical, cognitive, or social functioning of individuals with health or educational problems. †(Barksdale, 2003). (Gilroy Lee 1995). Layman (1999) states that music therapy is the controlled use of music with the objective of helping people to overcome their problems. Whereas Bruscia (1987), suggests that music therapy involves the use of organized music in the development of the client–therapist relationship to promote the physical, mental, social and emotional well-being of the client. (Savarimuthu Bunnell, 2002) The various types of music therapy activities consist of either playing songs or improvisational music (i. e. , spontaneous music making). During my mental health clinical rotation, I visited â€Å"Ma Ayesha Memorial Hospital† where I encountered many children with developmental and learning disabilities. They were being taught music in their school curriculum. The students took an active part in the singing, instrument playing and were clapping as well. they all were happy and learning via the therapy. This experience propelled me to take up this topic in order to understand how music affects children with learning disabilities, how it shapes one’s life towards betterment. There are some questions running in my head: what is the philosophy behind music therapies, how these therapies brings in change? The paper is Organized in the following sections: (1) Background of music (2) Music therapy Approaches (3) importance of music (4)impact of music therapy and its contributions(5)recommendations for the implications Background The development of music therapy as a profession has continued since the power of music as a universal means of communication was first discovered in ancient times. In literature ranging from that of the Egyptians and Greeks to that of the present day, the power of music is evident. The shaman or medicine man in many cultures used music directly in healing and was aware of its curative powers long before the advent of the profession of music therapy. In classical Greece, Pythagoras described the healthful properties of specific musical intervals and modes to promote health. Plato’s Laws, a work that contains a description of music and movement as a prescription for restoring health and harmony, drew associations between music and the moral welfare of the nation. (Barksdale, 2003). Music Therapy Approaches Major approaches to music therapy include analytical psychology theory and classical conditioning theory. Analytical psychology theory is given by Carl Jung. According to Jung, the aim of any therapy should be one of the realizations of the authentic self, or making one’s issues conscious where they were once unconscious. By dealing with these issues, one reveals the true self residing underneath the once unconscious issue. Music therapy can therefore be seen as sharing the same goals as the Jungian model of psychotherapy and musical preference, using music to express unconscious or inexpressible emotions (McClary 2007). Pavlov’s behavioural concept of classical conditioning suggests that a preferred song or piece, if paired with a neutral product will produce a positive, or negative association between the two stimuli (Zander 2006). So, when a positive piece of music is amalgamated with positive object, the result will be posiitiive or depending how the client perceives it. The concept of music and its therapeutic effects are dated eons of years back, its gaining the limelight lately for 10-20 years in the field of health and in specific for learning diabilities. Though many children are termed as slow learners, but the prevalent cases are not much reported in specific. The former Lahore High Court judge and noted women’s and child rights activistNasiraIqbal stated that 1. 8 million Pakistanis had learning disabilities, of which 0. 5 million lived in urban and 1. 3 million in rural areas. (The Express Tribune, 2013). Importance of music . Plato has beautifully described music as â€Å"Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings to the mind, and life to everything. Without music, life would be an error. † Music is a way of life. It brings calmness in the mood. Not only humans, but birds, animals are capable to understand the melodies. I believe music plays an integral part in a child’s growth. it gives a sense of upliftment and binds the children altogether. The department of education, UK, also agrees to it that music plays a pivotal role in the development of children. Children’s participation in music connects children, boosting their self esteem, and gets the most out of their improvement in education and not merely in music. (Department of Education, 2011) Many Researches have exhibited a direct relation between music and improvement in reading abilities in children It illustrates that children who were guided with a certain type of music instruction had better skills of comprehending the reading material as compared to those who were not given instructions. (Department of Education, 2011) Straum (n. d. ) states that music can be used as a tool to encourage human development in cognitive, learning, perceptual, motor, social and emotional development. (Sze Yu, 2004) The impact of music therapy: Music therapy is a way to connect to one’s emotional side as well to increase memory and attention span. â€Å"It aids to achieve individual ambitions in assistance with a licensed professional. † (American Music Therapy Association, 2007). It is a nonverbal and verbal processing along with physical activities (e. g. Playing instruments) for expressing feelings by provoking unconscious psyche of an individual. (Erkkilà ¤ et al, 2011 Malchiodi2005). Today music has gained significant recognitionin many different clinical settings and is playing an important part in the field of learning disabilities (Dimond 1998), especially with people who have severe and profound disabilities. (SavarimuthuBunnell, 2002) In my opinion, the positive points of music therapy are unlimited and it’s currently being used in different health sectors. According to Dastgheib et al. , 2013, studies have reported many benefits of music therapy in managing different diseases, particularly in disorders related to the central nervous system. Widespread research has studied the impact of music on the brain and its role in neural cell growth. The process of music interpretation in the human brain is very similar to that of language processing. Indeed, many language areas overlap with those of music. Music can offer people with learning disabilities an environment in which they can develop and expand their social, cognitive and physical skills and improve their life (MacDonald et al. 1999) and in which they can learn to build a sound rapport with others and enjoy healthy behaviour (Alvin Warwick 1994). Personally, I believe in order toavail benefits from the therapy, clients needs to be motivated and requires to take part in therapy to the fullest. The mentioned authors also agrees to my view point. Both the involvement of Bunnell (1997) and Holford (1999) with clients with learning disabilities suggests that active participation can make music therapy more interesting and successful. They believe that clients should be encouraged to participate in music making as it promotes self-esteem and confidence. Music integration provides children with concrete, hands-on experiences that are essential to developing each The child’s ability to reason, think, solve problems, analyze, evaluate, and to enhancing creativity (Houchens, 1983). Music has a direct effect on speech and communication portion of the brain. It assists in differentiating sounds. Also, it has a major effect in communicating information and in budding an understanding of language patterns. in regard to cognitive and academic, music helps in generating and memorizing mnemonics to teach specific academic information such as a address, telephone number etc . music therapy also have a positive impact in the progress of hand-eye coordination and gross and fine motor skills by playing an instrument. In the social sector, music therapy is proved to be a motivating agent. It instills the concept of group work and each group member contribute an idea or word to a song in song writing. In this manner , music is being utilized to create a bonding where the child can enhance their self-esteem with other peers. (The music therapy center of California, 2005) On the other hand, musical intervention may have a negative impact on clients. One example is when the client is attached to a particular piece of music and rejects what the facilitator offers. Another example is when a client displaysinappropriatebehaviour, which does not allow the aims and objectives of the musical intervention to be met, and which hinders therapeuticcontact with the facilitator (Schalkwijk 1994). Insuch cases, music based interventions should beceased, but reintroduced at a later phasewhen the client is receptive to collaborate with the facilitator. The age and culture of clients are key factors, which needs to be considered for their choice of music may differ. Past experiences can also be set off by specific music where clients may feel distress. Evidence also suggests that music associated with violent lyrics such as ‘heavy metal’ can have a negative impact on clients (McCraty et al. 1998). Strategies/Recommendations There are certain interventions that must be done at all three levels, i. e. local, national and international level to cater different domains of learning by applying music therapy and achieve progress. As a student nurse and responsible citizen of society, it is my duty to help and guide people in the effective use of music therapy in dealing with people with learning disabilities. Firstly, it is essential to devise a method whereby it is possible to measure small changes which can be tailored to each individual (Oldfield Adams 1995). This would help to detect very small changes in behaviour. Secondly, it is also important to accept that change may take a long time to occur so the facilitator must not lose hope and discontinue the intervention. Difficulty can also arise when observing and interpreting the response of clients to sound or music (Alvin Warwick 1994). This exercise may become easier after a few sessions with the clients where the responses are identified and understo od. This can be done by teaching individuals or families in particular schools, colleges and university, hospital for instance, in Maa Ayesha; music therapy is being used for children with learning disabilities. While at national and international levels, attention should be given on providing awareness to people regarding the use of music therapy. People should be encouraged to listen and learn music. Furthermore, different courses for music therapies should be introduced at institutional level and certain policies could be made to enhance the productivity and benefits from the therapy. at the governmental level, music therapist career option and courses could be out. . According to Fatima (2013), clinical Psychologist Qudsia Mahmoud states that the Pakistani population lacks the awareness about the significance of music therapy. Fatima (2013) cited Mr. Sohail Khan as he had established Music therapy center in Karachi, Pakistan and has widely worked on â€Å"The Prism Project, A M ultidimensional Approach to Music in Education†. The field of music is vital and holds its own importance, yet it remains unexplored in Psychotherapy. Music and art plays a pivotal role in shaping children’s lives, especially those with learning disabilities. There is a very close knitted affiliation between music therapy and the recovery of children with learning disabilities. There is an urgent need to initiate music therapies in hospitals in Pakistan, to enhance understanding of these professional caretakers to help patients overcome the disabilities in a fun and learning environment. Also, there is a need to include it nursing education, as foremost priority, as being a nurse who is in close contact with patients’ needs to know about therapies in order to enhance the productivity of patients and help them in recovery at a faster pace. References Barksdale, A. (2003). Music therapy and leisure for persons with disabilities (1st ed. ). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Pub. Bushra Fatima, B. F. , 1st December, 2013. Health Music Therapy – What is it and How to get it  in? Blush, retrieved from: http://blush. com. pk/music-therapy-in-pakistan Cathy. A. Malchiodi, C. A. M. , (2005). History, Theory, and Practice. In: Cathy A. Malchiodi (Ed), Expressive Therapies. 1st Ed. New York: Guilford Publications. Pp. 1-15. Darren Henley, D. H. , (2012). The importance of music: A national plan for music education. 1st ed. England Dastgheib, S. , Riyassi, M. , Anvari, M. , Niknejad, H. , Hoseini, M. , Rajati, M. , Ghasemi, M. (2013). Music Training Program: A Method Based on Language Development and Principles of Neuroscience to Optimize Speech and Language Skills in Hearing-Impaired Children. Iranian Journal Of Otorhinolaryngology, 25(71), 91. David Butler, D. B. , (01 October 1982). Music Theory, Theories of Music, and Systematic Musicology. Journal of the collage music society. 22, pp. 1-15, Retrieved from: http://symposium. music. org/index. php?option=com_k2view=itemid=1933:music-theory-theories-of-music-and-systematic-musicologyItemid=124 Department of Education, . (2011). The Importance of Music A National Plan for Music Education. Crown. Freilich, R. , Shechtman, Z. (2010). The contribution of art therapy to the social, emotional, and academic adjustment of children with learning disabilities. The Arts In Psychotherapy, 37(2), 97-105. doi:10. 1016/j. aip. 2010. 02. 003 JaakkoErkkilà ¤, J. K. , Marko Punkanen, M. P. , Jà ¶rgFachner, J. F. , EsaAla-Ruona, E. A. R. , Inga Pà ¶ntià ¶, I. P. , Mari Tervaniemi, M. T. , MaunoVanhala M. V. , Christian Gold C. G. , (2011). Individual music therapy for depression: randomized controlled trial. The British journal of Psychiatry. 199, pp. 132-139 Savarimuthu, D. , Bunnell, T. (2002). The effects of music on clients with learning disabilities: a literature review. Complementary Therapies In Nursing And Midwifery, 8(3), 160-165. doi:10. 1054/ctnm. 2001. 0629 Shafron, G. (2010). The Science and Psychology Behind Music and Emotion. Journal Of Young Investigators. Sze, S. , Yu, S. (2004). Effect of music therapy on children with learning disabilities. In Proceedings of the 8th international on music perception and cognition. Austraila: Adelaide. The music therapy center of California. (2005). Retrieved 29 August 2014, from http://www. themusictherapycenter. com/. . . /factsheets/mtcca_learningdisabilities. www. musictherapy. org, . (2007). American Music Therapy Association. Retrieved from http://www. musictherapy. org/assets/1/7/bib_psychopathology. pdf. The Express Tribune, . (2013). Dyslexia. Retrieved from: http://tribune. com. pk/story/578452/workshop-1-8-million-affected-by-learning-disabilities/

The Hollow Men :: Hollow Men Essays

The Hollow Men Thomas Stearns Eliot was born in St. Louis, Missouri of New England descent, on Sept. 26, 1888. He entered Harvard University in 1906, completed his courses in three years and earned a master's degree the next year. After a year at the Sorbonne in Paris, he returned to Harvard. Further study led him to Merton College, Oxford, and he decided to stay in England. He worked first as a teacher and then in Lloyd's Bank until 1925. Then he joined the London publishing firm of Faber and Gwyer, becoming director when the firm became Faber and Faber in 1929. Eliot won the Nobel prize for literature in 1948 and other major literary awards. Eliot saw an exhausted poetic mode being employed, that contained no verbal excitement or original craftsmanship, by the Georgian poets who were active when he settled in London. He sought to make poetry more subtle, more suggestive, and at the same time more precise. He learned the necessity of clear and precise images, and he learned too, to fear romantic softness and to regard the poetic medium rather than the poet's personality as the important factor. Eliot saw in the French symbolists how image could be both absolutely precise in what it referred to physically and at the same time endlessly suggestive in the meanings it set up because of its relationship to other images. Eliot's real novelty was his deliberate elimination of all merely connective and transitional passages, his building up of the total pattern of meaning through the immediate comparison of images without overt explanation of what they are doing, together with his use of indirect references to oth er works of literature (some at times quite obscure). Eliot starts his poem "The Hollow Men" with a quote from Joseph Conrad's novel the Heart of Darkness. The line "Mistah Kurtz-he dead" refers to a Mr. Kurtz who was a European trader who had gone in the "the heart of darkness" by traveling into the central African jungle, with European standards of life and conduct. Because he has no moral or spiritual strength to sustain him, he was soon turned into a barbarian. He differs, however, from Eliot's "hollow men" as he is not paralyzed as they are , but on his death catches a glimpse of the nature of his actions when he claims "The horror! the Horror!" Kurtz is thus one of the "lost /Violent souls" mentioned in lines 15-16.

State of Racism and Gender Discrimination

?State of Racism and Gender Discrimination What is discrimination? Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of a different person or groups of people based on certain characteristics. In the United States there are seven protected characteristics or classes that are defined by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Age Discrimination Employment Act, and the American Disabilities Act that can not be discriminated against: race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, and disability. This paper focuses on two of the protected classes: race and gender discrimination. What is racism? Racism (also known as discrimination against a race or races) is a belief that all members of one racial group have superior characteristics or abilities specific to that group; it allows the ranking of races based on superiority and implies the importance of one race over the others (â€Å"Racism† 2008). Supremacy ideology is core to racism. In the 20th century, the face of racism was largely black and white; however, in recent times there have been examples of racism against Native Americans, Asian Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans, and some other immigrant groups (â€Å"Racism in the United States† 2008). Today, racism has become multi-colored and multicultural. Racism and racial discrimination are very powerful forces which unfortunately harm the whole economy. Racism can take place in many areas such as the job market, housing market, educational system, and health care services. Even today, racial discrimination against minorities (especially African Americans) can be found in the housing market (i. e. making renting apartments, taking out mortgages, and buying houses extremely difficult or even impossible in some areas). This is not to say, that there has not been significant attempts and progress made, in order to eliminate racial discrimination. Racial discrimination and segregation used to be legal across the southern states of the United States (â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US† 2008). Many people have tried to stop racial discrimination throughout the history of the United States. One extremely influential and pivotal leader that many people are familiar with is Martin Luther King. While this paper is not a historic telling of Martin Luther King, his ideals are as influential today as they were then. He did not want people to be judged by the color of their skin but by the capability of their character. He tried to revive the Civil Rights movement in the mid 1950s. However, he was tragically assassinated on the balcony of his hotel in Memphis, Tennessee (â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US† 2008). After his passing and after many fundamental changes in the constitution, African American communities are no longer limited in their rights from society (â€Å"Martin Luther King Jr. † 2008). Today, the eyes of ethics and the highest laws of the land bids society to stop racial discrimination in all its forms, along with other types of discriminations defined under title VII, ADA, and ADEA. Gender or Sex Discrimination is the belief that one gender is more valuable than the other, and can also create doubts in the abilities of a certain sex and exacerbate stereotypes (â€Å"Sexism† 2008). In most countries around the world, gender discrimination is illegal in most circumstances (Manohar 2008). In the United States, Title VII protects against gender and sexual discrimination. There are two types of gender discrimination: disparate treatment and disparate impact (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). Disparate treatment is treating people differently because of his or her sex (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). The other is disparate impact, when the company policy does not include certain individuals or does not include everyone equally (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). The fire department is a good example of disparate impact. The qualifications of the fire department are extreme (i. e. he ability to carry and lift a lot of weight), which makes it hard for women to qualify for a job as a firefighter (â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination† 2008). These requirements are important to becoming a fire fighter and many argue that they are more than necessary. However, this does not mean that the fire department does not want to work with women. It is just the policy to set the standards high. Another interesting example: A male employee was fired by his employer because he refused to work at night (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). This company had a policy saying that women did not have to work at night because the company was located in a high crime area. The male employees had to work the night shifts for the company, while the women employees did not. The male employee in question filed a suit under Title VII against his employer claiming sexual discrimination. The company claimed that several female employees would quit if they were forced to work at night. The company also claimed the policy was a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ). This case is interesting because BFOQ can be used as a defense to allow certain discrimination. BFOQ is an exception provided by Title VII for jobs that require a specific religion, sex, national origin, or age as a reasonable necessity for normal operations of a business. Although BFOQ applies to the fire department qualifications, the courts deemed that the company who asked only its male workers to take the night-shift was could not use BFOQ as a valid defense (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). In the workplace, sexual discrimination usually involves sex becoming a factor in deciding on who gets a job, promotion, or other benefits. Many researches have shown that women are treated unfairly compared to men in hiring, promotions, and benefits (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). For instance, a young man, who dropped out from high school and does not have a degree, gets a job in a high position over a young woman who has her master’s degree. While the young woman is better qualified for the position than the young man, the man gets the job. This paradigm illustrates gender discrimination. The reverse has also held true. There have been cases where men have been discriminated against, as discussed above. There is also a particular form of sexual discrimination called sexual harassment. Sexual harassment includes inappropriate words or actions of a sexual nature to the opposite sex (â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia† 2002). Courts expect managers to understand that sexual discrimination may exist in the workplace and companies to take proactive measures to ensure that the environment is free from sexual discrimination. The first law of any federal importance in the United States regarding discrimination was The Civil Rights Act of 1871, also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871; it was mainly established to protect Southern African Americans from the abuse being delivered to them from the Ku Klux Klan. Although the Act had been interpreted by the courts many times, it had very little effect. For one, the Act was loosely defined and provided loopholes for state officials, who did not get litigated under the statue. However, this hole was patched up in 1961, when the Supreme Court of the United States decided Monroe v. Pape. The decision included several provisions to close the inadequacies found in the Civil Act of 1871. The Act is now one of the most powerful statues, in which the State and Federal courts may protect those whose rights are being violated. In particular, Section 1983 of the Civil Rights Act enforces the prohibition of public sector employment discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex, and religion, but it rarely applies to the private sector. Eventually, the first Federal law to promote equal opportunity and prohibit employment discrimination in the United States was passed. The law is called the Executive Order 8802, also known as the Fair Employment Act. It was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941. The law promotes and ensures that all Federal agencies and departments involved with the defense industry were administered without discrimination to race, color, or nationality on the vocational and training programs being offered to its employees and contractors. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited racial segregation in schools, public places, and employment regardless of race, color, religion, sex, or nationality. Originally conceived to help protect African Americans, it also explicitly included sections to protect women in the bill; as a result the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was founded as well. At the time of its creation, this law was seen as one of the most important legislations that abolished all forms and respects of discrimination. During its time at the House Judiciary Committee, the bill was expanded and strengthened to include bans against racial discrimination in employment, segregation in all public facilities, and protection of the rights of black voters. The bill was later passed out to the House Rules Committee, at which the committee’s chairman Howard W. Smith expressed his intention in canning the bill. But after pressures from civil rights groups and movements, Chairman Smith finally let the bill pass through and it was brought to a vote. It passed in the House on February 10, 1964 and was sent to the Senate. During the bill’s stay at the Senate, a group of southern state Senators launched a two month filibuster trying to prevent its passage through the Senate. In compromise, a revised weaker bill than the House version was brought to the tables for Senate vote on June 10, 1964 and was passed. Originally conceived to help protect African Americans, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 also explicitly included sections to protect Women’s Rights in the bill. Added by Howard W. Smith of the House Rules Committee Chairman, it was first seen as a guise to prevent the bill from passing (since at that time it was normally conceived that some groups of men within the House and Senate would oppose Women’s Rights). The Bill was later successfully passed and marked the first time legislation was put into effect to protect women. The Civil Rights Act was later followed by the Civil Rights Act of 1968, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act of 1968; which expanded the prohibition of discrimination to include the housing sector. It specifically prohibited discrimination on the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, nationality and later gender, and the protection of families with children and of the handicapped. The next important anti-discrimination law to pass was the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978. With more than 70% of women with children in the U. S. work force, the law was setup to protect women against discrimination due to their pregnancy (or intentions of becoming pregnant). Employers with prejudices against working mothers (due to the fear of lost productivity, extra costs, expenditures and accommodations associated with pregnant women) who might have been likely to discriminate against them were deterred. The Act also enables the distribution of a monetary pay-out as a result of discrimination against pregnant women. In 2006 alone, The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission handled 4,901 claims with monetary amount awarded totaling about $10. 4 million (EEOC 2006). The Civil Rights Act was amended again for the last time in 1991, in an effort to address various limits imposed by past United States Supreme Court’s decisions on the rights of employees who had filed law suits against their employers. It was basically setup to bring forth the emotional distress damages caused by employment discrimination while setting a limit on the amount the jury could award (â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts† 2008). Before the 1991 Act was put into effect, a plaintiff could only sue their employer for discrimination and recover lost wages or salary, lost benefits, attorney fees, court fees, other legal fees, and other costs associated with reinstatement. To prevent from unreasonable court settlements, the punitive damages awarded was capped at $300,000 for most cases (excluding ethnic and/or racial discrimination) (â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts† 2008). The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission still handles thousands of discrimination cases every year. There is statistical evidence that suggests racial discrimination in the workplace is still commonplace. In 2000, the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) reported a study in North Carolina that states accusations of racial harassment on the job nearly quadrupled between 1996 and 2000. Mindy Weinstein, attorney at the EEOC office in Charlotte, North Carolina, says, â€Å"There's a new generation of workers today who were not raised in the civil rights movement, who may not have been aware of the laws that came about because of that time†¦ We think it's largely a reflection of what's going on in society as a whole† (â€Å"Racial Discrimination† 2008). Since Barack Obama’s win the 2008 presidential election, people would like to believe that racism has seen its last day; unfortunately this is not the case. According to the research of Brown University, during 1970 to 1994, when America liberalized their uncompetitive banking markets, it reduced the wage gap between blacks and whites. Economists call the wage difference between black workers and white workers the â€Å"racial wage gap† (most of which comes from bias). Gary Becker, a Nobel-prize winning economist, argued that prejudice of employees was economically inefficient. Brown University found that deregulation of the American banking industry increased competition and lowered interest rates on loans. People found it easier to start their own business. They found that in an initially high degree of racial bias, the black-white wage gap declined the most. This evidence shows competition itself can not eliminate racial discrimination. Competition can only reduce the bias from employers. Changing attitudes takes a lot of time and effort; even though Obama’s election victory denotes a change in history, there is still a long way to go (â€Å"Race and Red Tape† 2008). Wage gaps can be seen in between genders as well. Though a wage gap between white men and white women may be expected, it is surprising to see this is not the only wage gap that exits between the sexes. In other racial groups, such as African Americans, Latinos, and Asian/Pacific Islanders, men earn more money than women within their own respective race (U. S. Census Bureau 2000). According to a study, women working 41 to 44 hours per week earn 84. 6% of what men earn working similar hours; women working more than 60 hours per week earn only 78. % of what men earn working the same hours (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2002). More over, women tend to work longer before they receive promotions and get a higher pay. Most people think a higher education may increase women’s salary, but the evidence suggests otherwise. The data does not show a narrow gender gap in wages at higher levels of education. On the contrary, at the very highest levels of education, the gap is at its largest (Hilary M. Lips 2008). Racial discrimination is an important issue in the business world and is a genuine problem that still exists—and in some cases it’s getting worse. According to a study published in 1998 by the nonprofit group Catalyst called â€Å"Women of Color in Corporate Management: A Statistical Picture,† it was shown that minority women, while now accounting for almost a quarter of all women in the workplace, occupied only 15 percent of the management positions held by women. The study verifies that a combination of racial discrimination and the glass ceiling was a differentiating factor in those numbers (Racial Discrimination 2008). Glass ceiling is a symbolic phrase referring to an invisible cap preventing qualified women and minorities from progressing into key higher level management positions, or in some cases any management positions. These individuals describe the cap as a â€Å"glass ceiling† because they can see the opportunity that should be theirs through the glass, but due to the ceiling, they can not go any higher. In 1995 the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission described the American labor force as being segregated by gender and race, where â€Å"white men fill most top management positions in corporations† (Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector 2004). The report affirms that the percent of women officials and managers in the private sector used to be 29% in 1990 and had increased to 36. 4% in 2002. Although this is an improvement, women embody 48 percent of all employees, but only 36. 4% of them are in key power positions. In the National Employment Summary released in 2005 by the EEOC, the average salary reported was $40,325. This report indicates that the median income of men is above average ($44,090) and the median income of women is below average ($36,417) (â€Å"National Employment Summary† 2005). The median salary for White and Asian employees was above average as well ($41,525 and $50,762 respectively); whereas Black, Hispanic, and Native American employees had median salaries below the average income (â€Å"National Employment Summary† 2005). When graphed, these findings show that White male population has an income graph that is skewed towards the right, whereas most minorities and women have a normal income distribution. The data here supports the idea that more White men are employed in higher paying jobs. The Federal Glass Ceilings Commission argues that: â€Å"The successful elimination of glass ceilings requires not just an effective enforcement strategy but the involvement of employers, employees and others in identifying and reducing ttitudinal and other forms of organizational barriers encountered by minorities and women in advancing to higher level management positions in different workplace settings. † (Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector 2004) Racism and gender discrimination hurt not only the people discriminated against, but also the economy as a whole. It prevents good, qualified individuals from progressing and attributing to the market. As a result, l ess qualified or poorly qualified people get placed in key positions. This prevents business’ from reaching their potential, and thus prevents the nation from reaching its. These issues are not restricted to the United States. Racism can be found in all countries across the globe, and its effects can be devastating. Africa suffers from constant political unrest where attempts at genocide are commonplace. Will racism and gender discrimination ever come to an end? It is a difficult question to answer, especially since it is human nature to differentiate between â€Å"us† and â€Å"them† (â€Å"So stereotypes persist because we want them to† 2000). The hope and desire for America is that the definition of â€Å"us† truly changes to encompass all Americans (â€Å"from all walks of life†). Works Cited EEOC (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). 2006. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/index. html Feinberg, Mark PhD. â€Å"So Stereotypes Exist Because We Want Them to†. American Psychological Association Public Interest Directorate. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. apa. org/pi/oema/racism/contents. html â€Å"Gender or Sex Discrimination†. 008. Retrieved November 29, from: http://www. discriminationattorney. com/lawyer-attorney-1287322. html â€Å"Glass Ceilings: The Status of Women as Officials and Managers in the Private Sector†. 2004. U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/stats/reports/glassceiling/index. pdf Lips, Hilary M. â€Å"The Gender Wage Gap: Debunking the Rationalizationsâ € . Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. womensmedia. com/new/Lips-Hilary-gender-wage-gap. html â€Å"List of Anti-Discrimination Acts†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/List_of_anti-discrimination_acts#United_States Manohar, Uttara. â€Å"Gender Discrimination at Workplace†. October 24, 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/gender-discrimination-at-workplace. html â€Å"Martin Luther King and the fight against racism in the US†. 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. socialistworker. co. uk/art. php? id=14531 â€Å"Martin Luther King Jr. . November 30, 2008. Retrieved November 30, 2008, from: http://www. 123HelpMe. com/view. asp? id=42718 â€Å"National Employment Summary†. 2005. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. eeoc. gov/stats/jobpat_eeo4/2005/jobs/UnitedStatesSummary. html â€Å"Race and Red Tape†. November 13, 2008. The Economist print edition. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. economist. com/finance/displaystory. cfm? story_id=12597512 â€Å"Racial Discrimination†. November 29, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. nswers. com/topic/racial-discrimination â€Å"Racism†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism â€Å"Racism in the United States†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States â€Å"Sexism†. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States â€Å"Small Business Encyclopedia†. 2002. Retrieved November 29, 2008, from: http://www. answers. com/topic/gender-discrimination

Foreign Secretary Level Talks India s Prime Minister

While campaigning for last year’s national vote, Narendra Modi promised a â€Å"new chapter† in Indo-Pak history if he became India’s Prime Minister (P.M). Instead, bilateral relations during his year and a half in office have not budged past a prologue both exhausting and marred by testy cross-border rhetoric. All that has changed now, at least on the surface. After Modi pleasantly surprised Pakistan by gatecrashing P.M Nawaz Sharif’s birthday party on December 25, there is hope for a new era, or at least one that sidesteps divisive populism. Foreign Secretary-level talks should begin on January 15 in Islamabad to roadmap a new composite dialogue on all outstanding issues including Kashmir. That is good news, no matter how you spin it. That said, the dizzying speed of rapprochement has startled politicians and pundits alike in both countries. Though cynicism abounds about the illusory nature of progress in making permanent peace, and some compare P.M Modi’s impromptu visit to a foreign policy smokescreen, January has historically been a good month for international statecraft. On New Year’s Day 1979, The People’s Republic of China (PRC) established formal relations with the US after 30 years of friction and short-circuiting each other’s geopolitical agendas. From squaring off in Korea and Vietnam during the Cold War, China and the US now practice two-way trade valued at over half a trillion dollars. The takeaway here is that diplomacy is rarely a zero-sum game or linear inShow MoreRelatedForeign Secretary Level Talks : India s Prime Minister Essay797 Words   |  4 Pageshistory if he became India’s Prime Minister (P.M). Instead, bilateral relations through his first year and a half in office stuck to a prologue both fractious and pinned by testy cross-border rhetoric. All that has changed now, at least on the surface. 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